Underlying the discipline of design is a debate: is design an art, a science or some combination of the two? If design is a science, then it is based on certain principles that predict the success of any project and its components. If it is an art, then it is based on informed choices that are intended to achieve the goals of the project. And if design is both a science and an art, it involves a bit of both.

According to Rowland:

He concludes that design is ultimately a series of personal choices based on a sense of what is "right." A design process provides a framework in which the decisions can be made (Rowland, 1993, p. 85).

The decisions made during the design process involve a balancing act among these four components:

• Goals
• Resources, which are the materials¾ both physical and intellectual¾ available to present information.
• Design techniques, which are the strategies for achieving the goals using the resources available.
• Constraints, which are outside influences that limit the use of resources and strategies to achieve a goal (Carliner, 1995).

But how do technical communicators handle this balance? Which decisions do they make? When do we make them?

Technical communicators follow a process to make sure that we effectively balance these components. By following a process, technical communicators can make appropriate decisions at approprite points in the development of a communication product. Following a process also helps us provide more effective service to clients, because the process guides us in asking appropriate questions and shows clients the the "method behind the madness" of our activities.

Because following a process so fundamentally disciplines the activities of technical communicators, this book explains the subject of designig and developing communication products in the context of a process. Figure 2 summarizes that process.

The process, which is adapted from processes for instructional design (Dick & Carey, 1990) and software development, involves four groups of phases:

• The assessment phases, during which technical communicators clarify the need underlying the request for our services and set the goals for project
• The design phases, during which technical communicators determine how to use resources and techniques to achieve the goals, within the constraints the client has given
• The development phases, during which technical communicators create a draft product from the design plans
• The production phases, during which technical communicators prepare the finished product, distribute it to intended users, and assess whether our services ultimately met the needs of our clients

In the next several sections, I introduce you to the major activities in each group of phases.

Top

The Assessment Phases

The assessment phases are the first ones in the technical communication process. We perform them to identify the needs underlying the request to produce a communication product, and to set the goals that a successful communication product must achieve.

Clients often initiate a request by stating a type of information product that they would like you to design and develop, such as a manual or online help. During the assessment phases, however, you do not consider what form the communication product will ultimately assume. That form is part of the solution and, because you do not fully understand the problem, how can you think in terms of a solution? By assuming that you will produce a manual or help at this time, you might overlook important issues that would lead you to a different approach to meeting your clients’ needs.

Two phases comprise the assessment phase:

1. Defining the problem
2. Setting the goals

Phase 1: Defining the Problem

This phase initiates the design and development process. When you complete it, you should have identified the following information:

• The client’s business goal; that is, how the communication product should affect the bottom line of the client, either by generating revenue, reducing expenses, or complying with regulations. This is the ultimate need driving the client’s request for a communication product. The only way to ensure the success of a technical communication project is to link it to the client’s bottom line needs (Robinson & Robinson, 1989).
• The tasks users should perform with the information. Or put in other words, how will uses apply the information in their own contexts? In some instances, when the tasks involve physical actions, the list of tasks is clear. But in other instances, when the tasks are intellectual ones, such as choosing the right model of computer to meet a customer’s needs, or pertaining to attitudes, such as taking a favorable view of technical communication, identifying the tasks presents more of a challenge. Identifying the tasks users should perform also involves distinguishing between main tasks¾ or the tasks users need to perform to accomplish their work¾ and supporting tasks¾ or tasks users need to perform to accomplish the main tasks. To effectively identify the tasks, you first need to develop sufficient proficiency with the technical subject.
• The users and the influences on them; that is, to whom is the information directed and what would cause these people to accept or reject the information. At the least, you need to compile demographics on the users. But at the most, you should develop profiles of the users, sothat you can attach some mental pictures to the images of the people who use the proposed communication product.
• The corporate culture and project issues; that is, the information that your client is not likely to directly tell you, but could profoundly affect your success with the project. By identifying aspects of the corporate culture, you can assess the influence of your direct client in the organization, the likelihood that technical information will change during the course of the project, and the behaviors you need to succeed in the organization.

Phase 2: Setting the Goals

During this phase, you set the goals for the project. Setting the goals has two main components:

1. Defining the objectives. When you define the objectives, you define both the:
• Business objectives underlying the project, such as generating revenue or reducing expenses
• Content objectives. That is, the content that users need to master for clients to achieve their business objectives. When you write objectives, you do so using a particular format that indicates the objective in observable and measurable terms.
2. Developing a plan for evaluating the results. Before you have made any decisions about the structure or presentation of the information, you design the tools for assessing the effectiveness of the communication product. In this way, you have an image of how the "end state" should look and can structure information and design the presentation so that the communication product is most likely to "pass" the evaluation (Mager, 1975). Your evaluation assesses:
• The satisfaction of users
• Their ability to achieve the content objectives
• The ability of the communication product to achieve the business objectives
• The satisfaction of clients (with the ultimate goal of receiving another contract from the client or a referral) (Carliner, 1997)

Before proceeding to the next phase, you present a report of the needs assessment and goals to your client for approval.

Top

The Design Phases

During the design phases, you describe how you plan to the present the information. You first plan its form, then its function and prepare a sample section to clients. After you receive the client’s approval to continue, you prepare guidelines for the project to make sure all parts appear related and to make sure that you complete its development in an effective way. The design phases include:

3. Planning the presentation
4. Structuring the content and planning its presentation
5. Establishing editorial and project guidelines

Phase 3: Choosing the Form of the Communication Product

During this phase, you determine the type of communication product you plan to develop and the means of delivering that information to users.

• Specifically, you:
• Choose a type of communication product, such as a user’s guide or a reference, and in the process of doing so, identify all of the expectations that users bring to that type of product so that you can make sure you meet those expectations
• Choose a communication medium, such as print or online

Phase 4: Structuring the Content and Planning Its Presentation

During this phase, you plan the function of the content and prepare a sample section so that clients have a tangible idea of how you plan to achieve the goals. You determine what information will be included, in what order it will be presented, and how users gain access to it, and prepare a sample section.

Specifically, you do the following in this phase:

• Structure the communication product. In doing so, you:
• Identify the "book elements" to include, which include components such as the table of contents and index that are common to most communication products.
• Structure the content, which involves choosing and sequencing the technical content, then determining how users might gain access to it
• Plan the presentation of the content, which involves:
• Developing a concept for creatively presenting the material.
• Determining how to communicate each major piece of information: through visuals? text? with the assistance of examples? as step-by-step procedures?
• Preparing page or screen designs, which involves designing the appearance of the communication product.
• Prepare a sample section to show to clients and gain their approval for your approach to presenting the information.

Phase 5: Establishing Editorial and Project Guidelines

After you receive the client’s approval on your plans for communicating the information to users, you can complete the plans for proposed design for the information and plans During this phase, you develop the guidelines by which the project will operate and against which the drafts of the communication product will be assessed for quality. Specifically, this phase involves:

• Establishing editorial guidelines, including:
• Style guides to follow (so that all of the information appears consistent to users)
• Authoring tools (such as word processing software)
• Other technical specifications for developing the communication product
• Production (printing) specifications (such as the type of paper and number of inks to use in printing).

In this phase, you also develop "templates," tools that simplify the development process and help ensure consistency.

• Establishing project guidelines, including setting the budget and schedule for the project, and identifying members of the project team

  Before proceeding to the next phase, you present the final design plans to your client for formal approval. The format in which you present the plans affects the anticipated reception to them.

  At this time, you also begin distributing regular reports on the status of the project to those who are stakeholders in it so that they are informed about the progress of the project and feel actively involved in it.

Top

The Development Phases

As the name suggests, you develop the communication product during the development phases. You draft it, seek feedback on it from others, and revise it to reflect the comments received. The development phases include:

6. Drafting a communication product
7. Receiving feedback on a draft communication product
8. Revising a communication product

Phase 6: Drafting a Communication Product

During this phase, you turn the plans for a communication product into a complete draft. The tools you use are:

• Writing style, such as effective use of language, and writing so that others can easily revise and reuse the draft
• Visual style, such as graphics and color, to communication with images rather than words
• Self-testing, in which you test the draft yourself before distributing it for review

Phase 7: Receiving Feedback on a Draft Communication Product

During this phase, you seek the feedback of others on your draft communication product, and respond to that feedback. Specifically, you arrange for these types of reviews of your draft:

• Technical reviews, which involve subject matter experts and other representatives of the client who primarly review the communication product for accuracy but also relay other concerns in this type of review
• Editing, which involves someone acting as the "first reader" of the text and identifying issues with the presentation of content as well as with the grammar and style of the test
• Usability tests, in which people who are representative of the intended users try to perform the main tasks using the draft communication product

Phase 8: Revising a Communication Product

During this phase, you respond to feedback from the reviews, make additional changes, and maintain close communication with clients.

Specifically, you do the following at this phase:

• Manage technical and editorial changes so that you can balance the need to most effectively and accurately present information with the need to limit the amount of rework and produce a communication product on time and within budget
• Prepare access aids, such as indexes and tables of contents, which would be unsuitable to prepare at earlier phases in the process

Although this process only lists one revision, you might actually prepare two revisions and go through two additional reviews of the draft communication product.

Top

The Production Phases

The last three phases of the technical communication process involve taking the draft and making it available to users, and acting on feedback from them. The production phases include:

9. Producing a communiation product
10. Distributing a communication product
11. Maintaining a communication product

Phase 9: Producing a Communication Product

During this phase, you begin with a draft and conclude with a printed or copied communiation product. Specifically, this phase involves:

• Preparing the components of a communication product, such as the text, graphics, audio-visual components, and programming
• Preparing the master copy, which involves combining the components together, testing them to make sure they all work together, and preparing them in a form that can be used by a printer or duplication service
• Duplicating the master copy, which involves preparing for duplication and the actual process of printing publications and duplication diskettes, CDs, audiotapes, and videotapes

The extent to which you participate in these activities depending on the way your clients structure these tasks. You might only provide a draft copy with instructions to a production specialist or you might produce the final draft and copy it yourself. Whatever the extent of your involvement, the better you understand this phase, the more effectively you can produce information.

Phase 10: Distributing a Communication Product

During this phase, you make sure that the communication product reaches its intended users.

Phase 11: Maintaining a Communication Product

During this phase, you follow actual use of the communication product by users and how that use affects the business performance of your client.

Specifically, this phase involves:

• Conducting a "post-mortem," a special meeting of the project team to determine what worked and what you all would handle differently on future projects
• Tracking response to the communication product by users
• Maintaining contact with your client to assess their ongoing satisfaction with the results of the project
• Tracking technical changes that should be incorporate in future editions of the communication product
• Planning revisions to the communication product and scheduling their availability to users

Top

Limitations of a Process

A process is a model of the real world. Models provide a framework for approaching situations and a list of issues to consider. With a model as a basis for planning your work, you significantly increase the likelihood of success on a project because you will perform the appropriate tasks at the appropriate times.

But models are only representations of the real world, they are not real. Although this process reflects what happens during the design and development of technical communication products, it prescribes to some extent, how those activities should occur. Your experience as you go through this process might differ. For example, you might start distributing project status reports at phase 3, as you begin structuring the content, rather than waiting for phase 8. If that works for you and meets your clients needs, then by all means, do it. Or, you might be developing a communication product in tandem with the development of the software the product describes. The information you need to do your job might not be available at the appropriate times in the process and, as a result, you may have to alter it.

The purpose of presenting technical communication as a process is not to constrain you, but to help structure your work. Technical communicators adapt this model as the needs of their clients dictate and you will, too.

Similarly, you might find that you need to perform additional steps not listed in this process. The process is not intended to address every situation that might arise in your career; rather, it is intended to develop your understanding of the issues involved in designing and developing technical communication products. When situations arise that are not addressed by this model, you should have enough familiarity with the issues to make a good judgment on how to proceed.

Top

Top

models | processes | techniques | resources on i.d. business and management | home

(c) Copyright. 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002. Saul Carliner. All rights reserved.