The first step in the production process is converting the drafts of the various elements you have developed into pieces that can be combined into a master copy. The exact pieces that you prepare vary, depending on the various media used in your communication product.

Copyedit Text Intended for Publication

Copyediting is the process of marking text for final typesetting. Copyediting begins after your client has approved all of the text and released it for publication. The copyeditor looks for glaring errors with grammar and style, legal issues, and makes sure that the production staff has adequate instructions for producing a communication product.

• Grammar and style: By the time a draft reaches the copyeditor, the text should be written exactly as you intend it. But just as your grade school teacher probably advised you to have a friend look at a class project before turning it in, so a copyeditor reviews the draft one last time to find glaring errors with grammar and style. Specifically, the copyeditor looks glaring errors with:
• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Typogrphical errors, such as missing and repeated words
• Grammar
• Capitalization
• Gross inconsistencies in style and terminology

Because the client has approved the text as is and significant changes at this late stage require client approval (and will likely delay publication), copyeditors do not make substantive changes to the text at this time.

• Page and screen design issues: Makes designs are consistent among pages and screens and that any final production instructions are clear. Specifically, copyeditors address issues such as:
• Headings, making sure that each heading is properly marked with its appropriate level and, if additional production work is required, that instructions are complete and clear.
• Running headings and footers, making sure they are consistently placed on each page where they belong and that you used a consistent scheme for naming these running heads and footers (for example, if the running head in chapter 1 is "1," then the running head in chapter 2 should be "2," not "Chapter 2")
• Tables and charts, making sure that tables and charts are consistent in appearance and style and that production instructions, if any, are complete. For example, if a table on page 14 has lines separating the cells and the column heading for it are initial capped, the copyeditor makes sure that the chart on page 22 follows the same instructions.
• Illustrations and graphics, making sure that graphics are properly placed and that a camera-ready graphic or instructions for producing it are provided for each graphic marked in the text. The copyeditor also makes sure that each graphic has a caption and, if used a figure number (if you are using figure numbers).
• Margins are clearly marked and observed
• Type font, including emphasis type, such as bold and italic, making sure they are properly marked and that emphasis type is consistently and properly used. For example, terms from other languages (other than computer languages!) that appear in English documents are usually italicized.
• Legal issues: Makes sure that you have proper permission to publish all of the information in the communication product. Copyeditors specifically look at:
• Permissions to use copyrighted material, unless the material is copyrighted by your organization. Permissions should be saved in a special file. Specifically, the copyeditor makes sure that you have permission to use the following from other sources:
  • 250 words or more from other sources
  • Photographs
  • Clip art
  • Sound clips

  Trademarks are properly labeled and their owners identified.

  Copyright notice is prepared and inserted, along with any other relevant disclaimers.

• "Book elements." Makes sure that all of the front and back matter are included in the production package, such as a cover design, title page, and table of contents for a printed manual and packaging and labels for online communication products distributed as diskettes and CD-ROM.

After reviewing the suggestions of the copyeditor, incorporate them into the final draft. In some cases, a production specialist might incorporate the changes for you, if someone else handles final production of text.

Many people confuse copyediting with editing and proofreading. As mentioned earlier, editing is the task of serving as the first reader of a document and suggesting ways that the author might make an communication product easier for readers to follow. Proofreading is the task of matching input pages with out put.

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Produce Graphics

As you prepare for production, you convert images from ideas to concrete graphics. In some instances, you might have already prepared the graphics as part of the process of developing earlier drafts. This might have happened if you are using clip art and other types of previously created images, or if you have skills in creating graphics. But if you are using photographs, or hiring a graphic artist to prepare your graphics, you will most likely wait until the client approves the final version of the communication product before hiring the specialists needed to produce these images. If you hire them earlier in the process and the information changes, you might have unnecessarily wasted the client’s funds.

Producing graphics specifically involves the following activities. The exact activities that you need to perform depend on the type of graphic images used in your communication product.

• Preparing original drawings, such as line drawings and icons. Most likely, a graphic artist will produce these drawings. The artist might do this work by hand or on a computer but, ultimately, you would prefer that the image be available in the computer so that you can integrate it with the text and have it available for future use.
• Preparing computer images, such as three-dimensional drawings. At the time I am writing this book, the software for creating three-dimensional drawings is complicated and requires special skills.
• Taking photographs. Although you can find seemingly foolproof, point-and-shoot cameras, you should hire a photographer to take photographs for you. Simple photography is primary intended for personal use. Industrial photography, while not as elaborate as magazine and fashion photography, still requires extension attention to lighting, placement of images, and other details that require the skill of a professional.

Furthermore, if you intend to include people in your photographs, you need to consider such as issues as hiring and preparing models and using model release forms. A professional photographer can assist you with these issues, too.

After taking the photograph, the photographer, a graphic artist, or you can re-touch it, using special software or other tools. When you retouch a photograph, you can remove unnecessary details, such as an arm that is not attached to any person in the photograph, change the image size, remove blemishes, such as a blemish on someone’s face, and enhance the colors.

• Adapting drawings from other sources. When you adapt a drawing, you can:
• Add or remove features (such as adding color)
• Change the size, such as changing a 3 by 3 image to a 4 x 4
• Crop the drawing, which involves cutting off part of the image and changing the image size

In some cases, you might hire an artist to take a basic image and add or remove features from it. In other cases, you might scan a picture into the computer from another source, such as a from a book or photograph and, using special graphics software like Photoshop, add and remove features and crop it. Or, you might use a combination of these.

• Adding graphic touches to text, such as:

Adding lines above and below headings	____________________ Sample Heading ____________________
Making art out of words and numbers.	» ¼ ½

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Produce and Edit Audiovisual Components

Audiovisual components, which include narration, background music, and video sequences, are the most complex to produce because they usually involve an entire production crew that has had little involvement with the project until this point.

Depending on the component and the sophistication of the production, the time needed to produce these elements may be extensive; in some cases, as long as needed to produce the information.

Production processes vary, too, for audio and video sequences.

Producing Audio Sequences

Producing audio sequences involves the following tasks;

1. Hiring a sound engineer. Although, like photography, you can find easy-to-operate recording equipment, it, too, is intended for personal use. When producing industrial quality audio, you need to control various aspects of noise, such as background noise and noise levels; you may even need to record the script out of sequences and piece¾ or edit¾ it back together. You might also need to add sound effects and background music. As a result, you most likely need a sound engineer.
2. Reserve a studio. Studios have the recording equipoment built in and are specially built to block out unwanted backgroud noise. The sound engineer can reserve the studio for you.
3. Ask someone to read through the narration. Determine how well it reads and, if necessary, make adjustments. For example, you might rewrite a sequence after the reader complains that it has too many difficult-to-pronounce words or you might rewrite mispronounced words phonetically.
4. Hire a narrator. You usually hire a professional. To do so, contact a local talent agency and ask them to send over a "demo tape." The demo tape has brief recordings from several prospective narrators. Identify the ones who have the vocal qualities you seek, then ask for a longer tape. From that group,choose a narrator. Tell the talent agency, who will work with you to schedule the narrator and arrange for payment. Wages are likely set by a local talent union.

Invite clients to participate in this decision, the voice represents them to the public. Also note that the sound engineer can assist you in hiring a narrator.

5. Record the narration. The sound engineer manages this process. You should be present, however. Before actually recording the sequence, the narrator will read the script. If the narrator has difficulty doing so, you might need to approve some last-minute rewrites. Similarly, the narrator will the script several times and you can choose the readings of specific sequences that you prefer.
6. Edit the audio. The sound engineer handles this task. First, the sound engineer takes the specific sequences that you preferred and "places" them in proper sequence. For example, you might have liked the recording of paragraph 1 from the first recording, but paragraphs 2 and 3 from the second recording. The sound engineer can take those sequences and arrange them in the proper order. Next, the sound engineer adds sound effects and background music. The sound engineer should ask for your approval on both before using them. The use of computerized sound equipment lets the sound engineer easily prepare sound out of sequence.

After editing the pieces of audio together, the sound engineer reviews the entire recording for sound quality. If the sound levels in one part are stronger than in another, the sound engineer adjusts the sound quality. Various types of meters help the sound engineer measure and adjust sound quality.

7. Prepare the master recording. The sound engineer then completes the work and prepares the master recording. The recording might be on tape or disk, depending on your needs and the capabilities of the sound studio.

Producing Video Sequences

Producing video sequences involves the following tasks;

1. Hire a director. Although, like photography and sound production, you can find easy-to-operate video recording equipment, it, too, is intended for personal use. When producing industrial quality video, you need to secure recording locations, control lighting and sound in those locations, hire talent, and arrange for props. Directors can immediately identify the issues that need to be addressed and hire the specialized talents needed to address those issues.
2. Prepare a storyboard. A storyboard is a sequence of boards created by the director (not the information developer), that indicates what the video will look and sound like. The director prepares a separate storyboard for each camera shot. The format of video storyboards is identical to those discussed earlier in this book.

As the director reviews your script from the perspective of producing it, you might be requested to make last minute changes to simplify final production. For example, after learning that using two separate locations for shooting will increase the production budget by 50 percent, you might revise the script so you only need to shoot video sequences in one location.

3. Hire a production crew. The director hires a crew to handle with the shooting. The exact skills vary, but will likely involve someone to handle the cameras, someone to handle lighting and sound, someone to handle props, and a floating assistant.
4. Reserve shooting locations. Because a location cannot be used for both shooting video and performing other types of work, you must reserve the site well in advance. If you plan to shoot in a work location, the person managing that location will likely request that you shoot the video after hours, to avoid interrupting work. If you plan to shoot in a public place, you need the permission of the location owner and may need to pay a rental fee for inconveniencing the landlord. If you plan to use a video studio (where you have the greatest control over sound and light), you need to reserve the space for your exclusive use. You must make separate reservations for each shooting location. If you plan to use several shooting locations, you might not be able to reserve all of the locations in the sequence used in the video. The director has responsibility for reserving shooting locations.
5. Hire onscreen talent. You usually hire a professional. To do so, contact a local talent agency and ask them to send over a "demo tape." Like a demo tape of narrators, a demo tape for actors has brief recordings from several prospective actors. Identify the ones who have the vocal qualities you seek, then ask for a longer tape. If you have difficulty deciding, you might invite the finalists in for a live audition. Then, chose the actors you want.

Tell the talent agency, who will work with you to schedule the narrator and arrange for payment. (Make sure that the actors are available to work the days that you have shooting locations scheduled.) Wages are likely set by a local talent union.

As with choosing audio talent, invite clients to participate in this decision, the actor represents them to the public. The director has responsibility for hiring onscreen talent, but should include you in the decision.

6. Record the video. The director records the various video sequences in the most efficient order. Usually, video sequences are shot out of sequence. For example, because setting up thelighting and sound equipment takes so much time, if you use one location for two separate scenes, the director shoots both scenes at the same time to avoid a separate set up.

You might be interested in sitting on the set during video shooting, but be prepared for a slow, tedious process. The director might take an hour or two merely to get the lighting correct for a 3-minute scene. The director might shoot the scene several times until the reading is correct.

7. Edit the video. A video editor, sometimes called a producer, working under the direction of the director, handles this task. As with sound recording, the video editor first takes the specific shots and "places" them in proper sequence. Next, the video editor adds sound effects and background music to the audio track. The video editor usually seeks the director’s approval for these before using them. Next, the video editor adds visual effects, such as graphics (which are produced as the video sequences are shot), displayed words (which are produced at the time they are "edited in," and various transitions between scenes. For example, the editor can add a "wipe," which wipes away one scene and introduces a next and a "fade," which fades down the visual image of one scene as the next one comes up.

After editing the pieces of video and sound together, the video editor reviews the entire recording for visual and sound quality. Using equipment similar to that of the sound engineer, the video editor adjusts sound quality if the sound levels in one part are stronger than in another and adjusts picture quality if it is uneven. Various types of meters help the sound engineer measure and adjust sound quality.

8. Prepare the master recording. The video editor then completes the work and prepares the master recording. The recording might be on tape or disk, depending on your needs and the capabilities of the sound studio. Preparing the master recording on disk might involve condensing the file, removing unnecessary information so that the it requires the least amount of space.

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Combine the Various Elements into a Single Package

With the various elements of the communication product now ready, incorporate them into a single package.

Combining Elements for Printing

If you are preparing a printed communication product, the text and graphics are combined to form a single master copy. In describing this process, I assume thatyou are using a full-featured word processor or desktop publishing software.

1. If you have not already done so, incorporate the suggestions of the copyeditor.
2. If not already done, add the title page, copyright notice, reader’s comment forms, front and back covers, pages to be printed inside the front and back covers, and other elements of the front and back matter to the master copy of the communication product.
3. If not already done, integrate graphics. Ideally, you can place all of the graphics in the master file used by your desktop publishing package. But the graphics may require additional work by the printer; in such cases, the graphics are either "pasted" onto the master copy or provided in a separate graphics package, for the printer to insert when the final copy is ready.
4. Verify and correct pagination problems. For example, if you start each chapter with the page number X-1 (where X is the number of the chapter), then make sure the first page of chapter 1 is 1-1 and the first page of chapter 2 is 2-2.
5. Generate the table of contents, list of figures, and index.
6. Make sure that the system included every page and that it assigned the correct page numbers to the table of contents and index, and figure numbers to the list of figures. This is one of the most important, although tedious, tasks. Specifically, make sure that every page is included in the master copy and that each has the proper page number and running heading. Make sure that the table of contents and index are included and that the page numbers are correct. Check all of the page numbers.

You especially need to perform this double-check with if your desktop publishng is automatically generating tables of contents, running headings, and indexes. Glitches in the software often result in tables of contents whose page numbers are off by one page and running headings that do not get "picked up" by the software.

Combining Elements of an Online Communication Product

If you are preparing an online communication product, do the following:

1. Complete preparation of the text.
• Incorporate copyedits, if you have not already done so.
• If not already done, add the title screen, "about" screen, reader’s comment forms (if any), and other screens in the front and back matter.
2. Use your authoring tool to properly integrate the text with graphics, audio, and video (if any). For example, if you have an audio sequence playing in the middle of an online tutorial, you would indicate in the master file for the communication product the name and location of the file where the audio sequence is saved, so that the computer can retrieve that file when requested.
3. Add other user interaction, if not already done so. At this point, make sure that all of the links, menus, indexes, search tools, answer analysis, branching, and "jumps" to other types of media are available. For example, if you are producing a tutorial and ask quiz questions, you need to create the programming for users to answer those questions and for the system to provide users with appropriate feedback, based on their responses. Similarly, if you are producing a demo and let users indicate certain characteristics before showing the demo, you need to produce the form through which sers indicate the information and make sure that it properly responds to user input.

In some instances, the authoring tool will not let you create the type of interaction that you intended. To overcome this, you need to write macros and programs to overcome these limitations.(Or, you can change the type of interaction to one that you can create with the authoring tool that you have.) Unless you are a programmer yourself, hire one to write these macros and programmers. Note, too, that you should identify the need for macros and programs when you prepare your prototype. As you develop the rest of the information, the programmer can be developing the macros and programs so that, at this point, you merely need to integrate the information. If you wait until this point to actually write the macros and programs, you will not likely make your completion date. Writing macros and programs can take several weeks.

4. Test the programming in the package. Make sure that every link, button, and menu choice takes the user to the intended location. Make sure that the system displays the intended response to each question presented to users. Make sure that the index works. Make sure that every video and audio sequence appears when scheduled and that the controls over these really work. (For example, if the software lets users fast forward through an audio sequence, make sure that the fast forward button realy works.)
5. Re-test all of the programming. Specifically:
1. Technically test all menus.
2. Technically test the communication product on a system representing the minimum requirements. For example, if your software runs on a Mac Performa computer as well as IBM-compatible computer with a Pentium 2 processor and Windows 97 with 32 MB of memory, you need to test the software on both of these platforms.
6. Prepare "zip" files. Zip files are files that contain all of the programming for your communication product, but removes spaces and other unnecessary information so that the actual file takes the least amount of space. When the user installs the communication product, the installation program will "unzip"the file so that the system properly displays it.
7. Develop, test, and document the installation program. The installation program creates directories and other files on the user’s computer for storing the communication product and "unzips" the zip file and stores it in one of those directories. The installation program should also give users the opportunity to store the communication product in a different location than the one indicate. The installation program should have an intuitive name, such as install or setup, so users can start the installation process by typing as little as possible.

If the installation process takes more than a minute, you might also include status messages to the user and other "distractors" to maintain their attention and enthusiasm. These include:

• Status messages, telling users the extent of the installation already complete. Use a graphical device, such as a bar chart that gets increasingly full as the installation progresses.
• "Advertisements" that whet users’ appetite for the information by calling attention to features that users might benefit from but would not easily find
• Key messages, such as instructions to register the software and explaining the benefits of doing so
8. Check for viruses, so that you do not distribute "contaminated" information to users and place all of the information on the user’s computer at risk.
9. Make at least one backup copy. If anything happens to the original, you have a duplicate to work with.

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