EN 3560 Technical Writing Fundamentals

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Conducting Research for a Proposed Communication Product

Identifying Where You Can Acquire Information about the Project

As you determine which information you need to gather, you also need to determine where you might acquire that information.

You can acquire the information you need from a variety of sources. In fact, several might provide you with the same piece of information. But each provides the information from a different perspective. Some sources provide information more easily than others, some sources provide more reliable information than others.

By considering the source and the type of information it provides, you can determine the value of that information in your needs analysis. Information comes from two types of sources: primary and secondary.

The following sections present examples of primary and secondary sources and suggest ways to use the information in them.

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Acquiring Information from Primary Sources

Because technical communicators usually generate information that was not previously published, our best sources of information are usually primary sources. Some activities in the needs analysis, in fact, involve gathering primary data.

Primary sources include:

• Source documents, such as product plans, grant requests, laboratory reports, memos, electronic mail messages, and similar documents that describe the technical material as it was gatherered or as it is intended to happen.

Technical communicators often use source documents to gain a background on a project. Source documents that describe plans provide insights into an ideal situation; source documents that report on existing conditions provide insights into current problems and opportunities. Other sources of information can tell you whether the authors how closely this ideal situation matches the real one.

• Interviews with people such as clients, subject matter experts, marketing staff, likely users, and others, who can provide you with insights into the technical material and how users might apply it in their own work and lives. The people whom you interview are called informants.

Technical communicators use interviews to elaborate on information in source documents, to learn about cultural issues and users, and to uncover business goals.

The stronger the level of trust between you and informants, the better your listening skills, and the more effectively you word your questions, the more likely that interviews will provide you with the helpful information. Note, however, that the information that informants provide you in interviews represents their point of view. Based on the other information you receive, you need to assess the completeness and accuracy of the information the informant provided you.

• Experiments, such as traditional scientific experiments performed in laboratories and government-required tests, including drug testing and safety checks, as well as trials of prototype products in laboratories or the field, intended to provide you with first-hand technical information.

  Typically, technical communicators rely on subject matter experts to conduct traditional scientific experiments. This information is the "raw" data that we must communicate in such a way that users can meaningfully apply it in their lives and work.

  In contrast, we often participate in the tests of prototype products. This first-hand experience provides us with practical insights into products that is not visible in product plans. That, in turn, spurs ideas of product use that can be included in our communication products.

• Surveys, such as opinion surveys of users and marketing surveys to assess the likely market for a product. Technical communicators use surveys to understand the preferences of users. We can then prepare documents that cater to those preferences.

Collecting information from primary sources usually requires a plan. To make sure that you collect the exact information that you need, you need to clarify your purpose and methods or procedures for collecting the information before you actually begin doing so.

To make sure that the information that you receive can be trusted and truly provides the type of information promised, you must follow rigid procedures when collecting the information. For example, when conducting a survey, you need to ask questions in a certain way to make sure that respondents are really providing you with the information you requested and analyze them using rigorous methods. The section "How to Interview Clients and Their Representatives" suggests some of the procedures to follow for interviews. Consult research texts for procedures used to collect data from experiments and surveys.

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Acquiring Information from Secondary Sources

Technical communicators use secondary sources to get background information that is useful in understanding the primary information and the people who will use it. Secondary sources also provide useful insights when no primary sources are availale.

Secondary sources include:

• Internet and other online information sources, from which technical communicators can obtain information about a variety of subjects. Much of the information on the net duplicates information available in other sources, but is much easier to find and is now a first stop on the information highway. Web pages include corporate brochures, individual opinions about a field, and similar types of information. Some web pages are also electronic versions of sources mentioned below.

  Technical communicators should carefully consider the credibility of information on the web. Information on many websites often is not "juried." Juried information is blindly reviewed by experts in the field for appropriateness and accuracy. "Blindly reviewed" means that the reviewers do not know the identity of the author when reading the information; therefore, their opinions about the author do not factor into the review process. Similarly, information on corporate web pages is primarily intended to cultivate a particular image for the sponsor. You should take this information into account when considering information from a corporate web page.

  Technical communicators use web pages as an introduction to a topic and to verify facts. For example, some corporate web pages provide product details. A technical communicator could check that web page to verify these statistics.

• Reference publications (both in print and online) such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, company directories, and similar general references. You might already be familiar with general purpose references, such as a Webster’s dictionary, Encyclopedia Britanica, and the public telephone directory.

  But you might not be aware that specialized dictionaries, encyclopedias, directories, and other references exist. For example, if you see a data processing term that you are not familiar with, you might consult one of the specialized glossaries, such as the one published by IBM. Similarly, ifyou have a question about a concept in software engineering, you might consult the Encyclopedia of Software Engineering or if you have a question about a concept in instructional technology, you might consult the Encyclopedia of Instructional Technology. To learn what types of references are available, visit the nearest academic library and speak with the reference librarian.

  Technical communicators use references of this sort for fact checking and to get general information about concepts used in our work.

• Books, manuals, and online help files, including similar communication products produced by competitors. Technical communicators use these sources not only to get and verify facts, but also for comparison and ideas. For example, to get ideas for your help files, you might look at help files produced by others.
• Newspapers and periodicals, including general newspapers and periodicals, as well as specialized ones. Each industry and most professions have their own trade press and professional journals. For example, the magazine Intercom and the journals Technical Communication, Technical Communication Quarterly, the Journal of Technical Writing and Communication, and the IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication all serve the profession of technical communication.

  Technical communicators use newspapers and periodicals in many ways, including obtaining and verifying facts, keeping current on the work of a particular industry or profession, and learning about the businesses of clients and users.

• Merchandise, such as the products of competitors and other products produced by your clients. Find merchandise in stores and in catalogs.

  Technical communicators use merchandise for background information about the market in which products are being used and to gain a better understanding of clients and their workplaces.

The amount of information in secondary sources is only limited by your creative abilities in finding it. So much information is available that it could easily overwhelm you. Your main challenges in using secondary sources, then, are ferreting out the good information from the weak and finding as much information as possible.

When assessing the usefulness and quality of information in secondary sources, consider these issues:

• How the information was acquired? Does it come directly or indirectly?
• How current is the information?
• How complete is the information?
• What point of view does it represent? What are the biases associated with that point of view? Where can you find information that represents another viewpoint?

If you plan to use information from secondary sources in your communication product, be aware of the restrictions on using it. When using data from secondary sources, you must always cite it. If you paraphrase, you need to identify the source. If you repeat information verbatim, copyright laws prohibit you from using more than 250 words without the permission of the author. If you use a graphic or photograph, you must also receive permission. You must also cite information that you receive from the Internet or other online sources. Citing sources not only helps readers assess for themselves the quality of information for themselves, it also is a matter of professional ethics. As you would want others to acknowledge your work, so you must acknowledge the work of others.

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How to Interview Clients and Their Representatives

As mentioned in the previous section, one of the key primary sources of information about technical communication projects is interviews. Through interviews, we receive much of the information we need to proceed with projects. Not surprisingly, one of the most important sets of skills that a technical communicator can develop is interviewing skills.

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How to Plan and Conduct Interviews

Interviewing involves to two types of skills. The first is questioning skills. By asking the right types of questions in the right sequence, you can elicit more complete information from informants than likely without these techniques. The other is rapport building skills. These skills help you build rapport with your informant so that they trust you and freely give you information. In fact, when you develop a sufficiently strong rapport with informants, they contact you when they have information they think you might be interested in.

The following procedure suggests how you might plan for and conduct an interview. Following this procedure should help you elicit the desired information from your informants and develop a good rapport with them.

1. Prepare for the interview. When preparing, consider the following issues:
   1. What is your purpose? Concretely state the type of information you hope to get by the end of the interview. Suppose, for example, that you were asked to prepare information for end users of a new software application and plan to interview the chief designer of the application. By the end of the first interview, you might want to know what the application is and the five tasks that users are most likely to perform with it. Similarly, suppose you are developing the internal policies guide for a medium-sized retailer and you plan to interview the human resources manager. By the end of the interview, you might want to know the policies that need to be addressed and how they will be administered.
   2. What types of things do you need to ask for informants reveal the desired information? List the broad topics for 3 to 7 questions. If you have more questions than that, you probably need to schedule a second interview. Suppose once again that you are preparing information for end users of a new software application and your goal is finding out which tasks will most commonly perform with the application. Your topic areas might include:
      • Most common tasks
      • Character sketches of typical users
      • How users currently perform these tasks
      • How easily will users be able to learn these tasks
      • The most likely "tough spots"
   3. Present these topics as questions. When writing questions, focus on "open" questions. Open questions require more than a single word as an answer and therefore more likely to elicit information from informants. Open questions usually begin with words like what, why, and how . Avoid closed questions, questions that only require an answer of a single word. Any question that requires a yes or no answer is an example of a closed question.

      Consider the question about the most difficult tasks for users to learn. An example of a closed question is:

      Are there any tasks that users might find difficult?

      The informant might respond yes, but you will have to ask another question to find out which tasks are difficult.

      In contrast, this open question is likely to elicit the sought-after information on the first try:

      Which tasks do you expect users to have most difficulty with? For example...

      This list of questions is called an interview guide.

      When writing questions, also consider these suggestions:

      • Avoid "double-barreled" questions, that is, questions that really ask two things at once, such as "Are you a technical communicator and do you exercise regularly?"
      • Avoid negatives in questions; focus, instead, on the positive
      • Be careful using technical terminology in questions; make sure that your informant will understand the term or be prepared to provide a clear, succinct definition
   4. Contact the informant and schedule an appointment for the interview. A first interview should take about 1 to 2 hours. Later, when you build a rapport, you can meet for a longer period of time. When scheduling the interview, tell the informant what your goal is. The informant can review any appropriate documents and make copies for you, if appropriate.
   5. Review your interview guide.
   6. Determine how you plan to record information¾ audiotape or notes¾ and make sure you have the appropriate equipment or materials before the interview.
2. At the interview, do the following:
   1. Be prompt. Appearing late for an interview, especially a first interview, interferes with your ability to build trust with an informant. If you are going to be late, call to let the informant know. Most informants understand that some delays cannot be avoided.
   2. Be prepared. Walk in with all materials ready to use (other than quickly setting up the tape recorder, if you use one).
   3. If you plan to record the interview, first ask the informant if he or she minds your doing so. Only after the informant provides permission should you turn on the tape recorder.
   4. Begin the interview by repeating the purpose. Ask questions. Start with your first question.
   5. Although you have an interview guide, consider straying from it if the informant is providing you useful information.

      As the informant responds to your questions, make sure that you clearly and completely understand the responses. If you do not, ask your informant to clarify points that seem unclear, amplify points that seem ambiguous, and to verify points (for this purpose, you might use closed questions, such as "Did you say that...")

   6. Actively listen to what the participant says. People provide you with information when they believe that you are listening to them. Whenever possible, use the informants own words as a means of reflecting back the informants’ responses and of encouraging further discussion. For example, suppose the informant told you that "users are really going to love this product."

      You respond. "Really going to love this product?"

      "Oh yes," the informant replies, and continues to explain how.

   7. Do not exceed the time limit for the interview. Instead, ask the informant if you may continue beyond the scheduled time or schedule an additional interview.
   8. Before closing the interview, summarize the main points with the informant to verify that you correctly understand the information provided.
3. After the interview, write a thank-you note to acknowledge your appreciation for the interview.
4. Transcribe your notes and assess whether you actually whether or not you got the information you wanted. If not, identify the information that’s missing and determine whether you want to interview the informant again or seek the information from another source.

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Whom You Should Interview

When you conduct the interviews for a needs analysis, you will most likely start with the person who initially contacted you. This is the project "sponsor."

Soon afterwards, you might also speak with at least one representative from each of the following groups:

• Subject matter experts (SMEs), who can provide you with technical information about the subject, such as the features and functions or the characteristics of a policy
• Marketing planners, who can provide you with information about the intended users and uses of the information
• Potential users, who can tel you about the contexts in which they might use the information and their concerns about it.

In some instances, each person you interview will provide similar answers, although from a different viewpoint. In other instances, the people you interview will give you conflicting answers,

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